Menhaden: A Historical Perspective
In the mid-1800s, the scarcity of whales led to the discovery that oil could be extracted from menhaden. During World War II, spotter planes patrolling the coastline for submarines observed vast schools of menhaden. After the war, these planes were utilized to locate menhaden, resulting in the establishment of as many as 100 reduction plants along the East Coast. Heavy fishing pressure caused both the population and geographic range of menhaden to shrink, eventually concentrating the species mainly in the Mid-Atlantic region. There were no restrictions on menhaden harvest until the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC) implemented a limit in 2012, which took effect in 2013. The new regulation reduced harvests by about 25%, prompting a northward expansion of menhaden to the New York Bight (from Cape May, NJ, to Montauk, NY), and further into the Gulf of Maine and Nova Scotia. This shift essentially allowed menhaden to reclaim their former range.
Observations from Point Judith
Residing in Point Judith, I observe juvenile menhaden, commonly known as peanut bunker, migrating through the area each fall. Despite reaching out to marine fisheries experts in Maine and Massachusetts, neither reported sightings of peanut bunker in their regions. One expert noted that older, more fertile female menhaden tend to spawn over a longer period. Therefore, the peanut bunker seen in the fall are likely hatched in Narragansett Bay. Since menhaden typically spawn at sea in the fall, some may be spawning during their southward migration. While I hoped to confirm spawning activity in the Gulf of Maine, it has not been documented yet.
Menhaden Migration and Harvesting Practices
Menhaden observed in the summer migrate southward for the winter, most likely to the New York Bight area. Due to severe depletion in Chesapeake Bay, vessels supplying Omega Protein now travel up to 250 miles to fish in the New York Bight. Of greater concern is the reported harvesting of peanut bunker in Chesapeake, a practice that threatens the sustainability of the species. If such harvesting continues unchecked, menhaden may face a fate similar to that of the Atlantic herring.
Proposed Solutions for Menhaden Conservation
Paul Eidman has proposed a solution to address the menhaden issue. The recommendation is to set the total allowable catch (TAC) at 75,616 metric tons, allocating 100% to the bait fishery and 0% to the reduction fishery, and banning menhaden harvest for reduction purposes. This approach would restore bait fishery allotments to 2025 levels, support continued northward population expansion, halt the decline of the Atlantic fishery, and initiate its recovery.
The key to rebuilding the Atlantic fishery is providing an abundance of food for the fish, and menhaden are the cornerstone of that effort. Are menhaden capable of leading the rebuilding of the entire Atlantic fishery? I believe they are. They have been heavily harvested for over 170 years and despite the long and intense harvesting, menhaden continue to produce the most weight of any fish caught on the east coast.
Nutrient Transport by Menhaden
Menhaden play an essential role in nutrient transportation within marine ecosystems. Their nurseries are located in the nutrient-rich (eutrophic) areas of bays and estuaries. Here, menhaden absorb nutrients to build body mass. As they migrate from these nurseries to the open ocean, they carry these nutrients with them. When menhaden are consumed by other marine life, much of the nutrients are then introduced into the broader ocean environment.
Carrying Capacity and the Ocean Food Web
An ecosystem’s ability to sustain life is known as its carrying capacity, which depends on the availability of food, water, and shelter. In marine environments, food is the primary limiting factor. The base of the oceanic food web is phytoplankton, or algae, which harness solar energy and chlorophyll to convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates, a process referred to as total primary production (TPP). The rate of TPP is determined not by the amount of sunlight, but by the concentration of nutrients in the water, especially nitrogen. Nitrogen is vital for plants to synthesize chlorophyll, enabling greater carbohydrate production, and it is also a key component of proteins. This principle was famously demonstrated by Squanto to the pilgrims, showing them how burying a fish—likely menhaden or herring—in a mound of corn would fertilize the crop. Notably, the word ‘menhaden’ originates from a Native American term meaning ‘fertilizer’.